Tuesday, August 25, 2020

Japanese American internment of 1942 Essay Example for Free

Japanese American internment of 1942 Essay The Japanese American internment which occurred during the subsequent universal war alluded to the movement and restriction of more than 100,000 individuals who were Japanese Americans or nationals of Japan. These individuals were taken to lodging offices which were normally known as the war migration camps. This internment was completed specifically in the United States with a large portion of the individuals who were interned being people who were living in the west bank of the nation. This activity of intense internment of the Japanese American individuals was completed during the rule of the then leader of United States Franklin Roosevelt. He approved this activity utilizing the official request 9066 which gave the military chiefs capacity to change military regions to prohibition places where all people living in them must be expelled. Utilizing this request, the military announced that people who were Japanese or who had family association with the Japanese were to be barred particularly in the pacific coast. This incorporated the individuals who were living in Oregon, Washington and in California. This request anyway absolved the people who were living in the internment camps (McClellan, pp 23). For what reason were Japanese Americans interned during World War II? During the Second World War, the Japanese had framed a union with the Nazi’s of Germany hence presenting incredible security hazard to the United States. War alarm in this manner broke particularly after the Japanese assaulted and bombarded the Pearl Harbor. During this period additionally, there were such a significant number of Japanese and Japanese Americans who had settled in America following impractical populace development in Japan. A portion of these Japanese and Japanese Americans had joined the American armed force in this manner promising loyalty to the United States. In any case, because of the way that Japan was a foe, there was alarm that the Japanese Americans who were serving in the American armed force could help the adversaries. Limiting them was therefore important to guarantee that there were no instances of treachery in this way annihilation of the United States and its partnerships during the war against the Nazis (Kelly, Para 4). One of the significant reasons which prompted the Japanese American understudy was the Pearl Harbor assault which occurred in 1941. This made the United States to accept that the Japanese had arranged to completely assault the west coast. This accepts escalated after the assault of shelling in 1942 which was a submarine having a place with the petroleum treatment facility of California. Japanese military success in a large portion of Asia during that time additionally made United States to reason that Japanese were relentless and that they could assault the nation. Since the majority of the Japanese Americans were living in the west coast, they were viewed as a security hazard in this way there was a need to bind them to the internment camps. The dread of the assault along these lines prompted a definitive internment of the Japanese American individuals during the Second World War (Japan-101. com, Para 6). Another explanation which prompted the internment of the Japanese American individuals during the Second World War was because of what was alluded to as the enchantment codes of the Japanese. During this period, the US couldn't break the Japanese maritime codes which were fundamental in empowering Americans acquire data with respect to the Japanese figures. Military counselors contended that on the off chance that the Japanese maritime chose to change those codes, America would not have the option to break them again particularly because of the language obstructions which existed. The United States contended that by keeping and indicting a portion of the Japanese Americans, these individuals could uncover a portion of the data with respect to the Japanese figures. The exertion of Americans to break the codes was for the most part alluded to as â€Å"magic†. Breaking these codes was essential since clash of halfway which Americans had won was ascribed to the effective breaking of the Japanese codes (McClellan, pp 45). A portion of the Japanese Americans were going about as spies for the Japanese maritime which made the repression of the Japanese Americans essential. The government agent ring which was a Japanese spying bunch expanded the dread of the Americans concerning their security. The Nihau episode was one case of treachery and undercover work. This occurrence happened after the assault of the Pearl Harbor. During this assault, two Japanese Americans were accounted for to have liberated a Japanese pilot who had been caught and they likewise helped him in assaulting the local Hawaiians who were living around there. Such frequencies prompted the internment of the Japanese Americans as they were helping the adversaries of the nation consequently presenting more serious dangers to the security of United States. A portion of the Japanese American populace was unfaithful to the legislature of United States and this was a significant danger to the Americans particularly during the war time frame. To guarantee that all the covert operatives were in no contact with the Japanese maritime, internment was subsequently the methods in this manner it was completed (Japan-101. com, Para 8). The issue of interment rotated around bias and dread which American individuals had against the Japanese Americans. A report which proposed that reconnaissance by the Japanese Americans had prompted the Pearl Harbor assault just served to build the bias which was at that point held by the American individuals. After this report California papers likewise embraced this move of mass clearing subsequently making the activity progressively fruitful. The then American government officials additionally transparently bolstered this move consequently making it increasingly fruitful. The feelings that the Americans held against the Japanese Americans in this manner helped in the internment activity. Other non military reasons which prompted the internment of the Japanese Americans particularly from the west coast incorporated the opposition which these individuals had brought to that territory particularly in the agrarian segment. During this period, the white ranchers didn't care for the ranchers who were Japanese Americans however this was for the most part activated without anyone else interests. The Japanese Americans had gotten high rivalry this locale particularly in cultivating and all things considered, the white ranchers imagined that internment was a decent road of guaranteeing that the Japanese were for all time expelled from this zone along these lines lessening rivalry in the cultivating segment. This was anyway not founded on racial segregation yet the danger the Japanese were presenting on white ranchers (Japan-101. com, Para 11). It is additionally contended xenophobia likewise contributed significantly to the Japanese American interment. During the Second World War, Japan had increased significant force while the United States had gotten more fragile in military terms. By the way that Japan had framed partnerships with Germany and Italy, and the resulting downturn of the United States power, this compromised the predominance of the United States. Need to stay in charge drove America to announce the avoidance laws for all the people who were being seen as foe outsiders along these lines decreasing any chance of the Nazis winning. By focus the Japanese Americans and interning the troopers and other people who were being viewed as foe outsiders, this diminished the indicated danger of breakdown of the superpower or assault by the Japanese. This additionally was intended to guarantee that the Japanese never became acquainted with the military activities of the Americans (Campbell, Para 3). Reasons which added to the Japanese American internment included racial partialities which were broadly held by the Americans against the Japanese and furthermore defects in the then constitution and the directors. Today a great many people contend that the right name for this activity could have been imprisonment as opposed to internment since this activity was not intended to rebuff the individuals yet to guarantee that no demonstrations of conspiracy were being completed. Nonetheless, this was an infringement of human rights and the United States after the Second World War shut all the internment camps and the majority of the survivors were redressed. Likewise, in 1988, the then leader of the United States apologized for the benefit of the nation to Japanese Americans who had experienced the internment (Kelly, Para 9). End The Japanese American internment keeps on bringing up numerous issues about its legitimacy and legitimateness particularly in light of the fact that the vast majority of the intermitted people were honest and not â€Å"alien enemies†. In spite of the fact that the legislature of the United States legitimizes its demonstrations inferable from the security dangers which the Japanese were presenting to it, these cases have been invalidated saying that the dangers were not genuine and that their extents were profoundly amplified. Regardless of the blemishes of the Japanese American internment of the Second World War, this period shapes a significant piece of the American and the Japanese history. Work Cited: Campbell, Jason J. : Xenophobia and the Internment of Japanese-Americans. (2009). Recovered on 27th March 2009 from, http://blogcritics. organization/documents/2009/03/03/072730. php. Japan-101. com: Japanese American Internment Removal of Japanese and Japanese Americans during WW II. Recovered on 27th March 2009 from, http://www. japan-101. com/history/japanese_american_internment. htm. Kelly, Martin: Japanese-American Internment at Manzanar during World War II. Recovered on 27th March 2009 from, http://americanhistory. about. com/cs/worldwarii/an/internment. htm. McClellan, Jim R. : Changing Interpretations of Americas Past: Changing Interpretations of Americas Past, Volume 2. (1999). Distributed by McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0072285060

Saturday, August 22, 2020

Harvard Referencing 4 Facts You Should Know

Harvard Referencing 4 Facts You Should Know Harvard Referencing: 4 Facts You Should Know Harvard referencing is a reference style utilized in advanced education around the globe, giving a brisk method of referencing sources in scholarly composition. Its across the board use implies that knowing how this framework functions is astute for any understudy. To support, at that point, we’ve arranged this fast guide clarifying a couple of key realities you should know. 1. There is No Such Thing as â€Å"Harvard Referencing† A great many people expect that Harvard referencing is related with Harvard University, however there is no official association. There is, indeed, in fact nothing of the sort as the Harvard referencing â€Å"system† by any stretch of the imagination. The school exists, however. You didnt envision that. Or maybe, â€Å"Harvard referencing† is a nonexclusive term for incidental referencing. Along these lines, â€Å"Harvard referencing† can mean various varieties of a similar fundamental principle set. Therefore, the specific method to reference sources will rely upon the adaptation utilized. We could end every one of different focuses in this post by reminding you to check whether your school utilizes similar shows, however we’ll take care of business here once in large letters to spare time: CHECK YOUR STYLE GUIDE! OK? Cool. 2. Authorâ€Date Citations All varieties of Harvard referencing utilize an authorâ€date position. This implies giving the author’s last name and a time of distribution for sources in enclosures, just as applicable page numbers while citing straightforwardly: Early people â€Å"didn’t fly by helicopter† (Diamond, 1997, p. 49). In the event that the creator is named in the principle content, there’s no compelling reason to copy it in the reference: As indicated by Diamond (1997), Australia is extraordinary throughout the entire existence of human turn of events. Each source refered to in the content ought to likewise be added to a reference list toward the finish of your report. 3. When to Cite The way to great referencing is knowing when it’s important to refer to a source. The principle circumstances are when: Utilizing an immediate citation Rewording another author’s thoughts or contentions Utilizing a graph or delineation from another source Utilizing recently distributed information or results Summing up a thinker’s convictions or considerations The key thing to remember is that it’s the nature of references that matters, not the amount. You shouldn’t, subsequently, stress over not having â€Å"enough† references in your work, as long as you’ve plainly and reliably refered to sources when required. 4. The Reference List Harvard referencing requires all refered to sources to be remembered for a reference list with full distribution data. The subtleties to incorporate for each source rely upon its configuration, yet the rundown itself ought to follow a couple of key shows: Rundown all refered to sources (extra perusing can be incorporated independently) Sources ought to be requested in order by creator last name Numerous works by a similar creator ought to be recorded soonest first by distribution date At the point when a source has various creators, give every recorded name (regardless of what number of) We trust this has explained a couple of things, and don’t neglect to look at the other Harvard referencing posts on our blog.

Wednesday, August 5, 2020

Sample TOEFL Paired Choice Essay What Type of Classes do you Prefer

Sample TOEFL Paired Choice Essay What Type of Classes do you Prefer Sample TOEFL Multiple Choice EssayThe QuestionSome students prefer classes with frequent discussions between the professor and the students with almost no lectures. Other students prefer classes with many lectures and almost no discussions. Which do you prefer? Use specific reasons and examples to support your answer.Special Offer: TOEFL Essay Evaluation and ScoringYou can now sign up to have your practice essays evaluated and scored by the author of this page. This service is a great way to learn how you will do before test day and how you can best prepare for the big day. Sign up today.The Sample EssayEvery student has their own preferred learning style, and therefore it is impossible to accommodate all of them. In my opinion, the best classes are those which include a lot of discussions. I feel this way for two reasons, which I will explore in the following essay.To begin with, classes where we have the opportunity to speak help to develop our intellectual abilities. Classes where the teacher does most of the talking are very passive, on the other hand, and do not help us grow academically. They mostly involve the memorization of facts and details which do not help us in the long run. For example, I recently took a political science class that changed the way I think about the world. The cut and thrust of debate in the class made me consider where my political beliefs came from and if they were even correct. I was required to listen to the opinions of others, so I was a more open-minded person after the class finished. I believe that I would not have developed in such a way by just listening to lectures. This example demonstrates how valuable intellectual conversations can be.Secondly, classes that involve a lot of interactions can help students develop the skills necessary to work well in groups. Many freshman students arrive at university very shy and unable to communicate well. Talking with their peers teaches students how to communicate effectively, and they can use this skill to excel in their future careers. My older brother’s experience demonstrates that this is true. When he started university he was a very introverted person and did not enjoy collaborating with others. However, after four years of participating in debates, discussions and presentations in his classes he became a very confident public speaker. As a result, when he began his career after graduation, he excelled in group work and was seen by his co-workers and supervisors as a natural leader. He was promoted quickly and advanced through the ranks of his company. Without participating in discussions with his professors and classmates he would not have developed the skills necessary to succeed in this way.In conclusion, I feel strongly that classes which are centered on discussions between professors and students are preferable to those in which the professor does all of the talking. This is because these classes help students develop academically, and because th ey teach students the skills that they need to achieve success in the future. (411 words)Note:This is a sample TOEFL independent essay written by a native speaker. It follows our TOEFL writing templates for independent essays. If it is useful, please remember that we havemany more sample essaysfor you to read!

Saturday, May 23, 2020

The Civil Rights Movement Essay - 891 Words

The 1960’s were a time of freedom, deliverance, developing and molding for African-American people all over the United States. The Civil Rights Movement consisted of black people in the south fighting for equal rights. Although, years earlier by law Africans were considered free from slavery but that wasn’t enough they wanted to be treated equal as well. Many black people were fed up with the segregation laws such as giving up their seats on a public bus to a white woman, man, or child. They didn’t want separate bathrooms and water fountains and they wanted to be able to eat in a restaurant and sit wherever they wanted to and be served just like any other person. During the Civil Rights Movement a lot of the white people who wanted†¦show more content†¦This site was created by Charles Moore, a freelance photographer who seemed to always be at the right place at the right time. All of the pictures on this web site were taken by Charles Moore who was especially found of Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. and what he stood for. There are pictures from the freedom march of 1963 and the Selma March of 1965. Pictures here show Dr. King marching non-violently with both black and white supporters. There is a picture of Andrew Young leading marchers through Selma in prayer. Governor George Wallace was against the Marches and wanted to stop them no matter what, but later he apologized for his segregationist views and actions during the 1960’s. During the march a picture was taken of police beating marchers with billy clubs. Another section on this page is voter’s registration, they showed black people explaining how to vote to other blac ks. People like Medger Evers who was fighting for the right to vote was shot down in his drive way as he was coming home from work one night because of what he believed. This page is formed so people can understand through the art of photography that human beings had to go though a lot to be treated equal. This page is very effective in getting the message across because of the graphic nature and up close (realness) of the pictures. When looking at the pictures used to tell the story in this site you can’t help butShow MoreRelatedThe Rise Of The Civil Rights Movement1179 Words   |  5 Pagessegregations. Out of the numerous elements that arose in the 1960s, there are three movements that truly affected the American society. Firstly, the rise of the civil rights movement was greatly influenced by racial discrimination of colored people in the South. Secondly, the women’s movement aimed to convince the society that women are capable of achieving and maintaining higher waged job like males. Lastly, the gay rights movement aimed to gain acceptance and stop discrimination of homosexuality. The mostRead MoreThe Folk Music Of The Civil Right s Movement1208 Words   |  5 PagesResponse Paper #4 The folk music of the Civil Rights Movement â€Å"came out of tradition, common experience, and generations of resistance† (Dunaway 2010: 140). The songs used throughout the movement derived from the shared experiences and struggles of African Americans while connecting â€Å"the gentle, idealistic world of folk music and the integrationist world of civil rights† (Dunaway 2010: 145). Songs, such as â€Å"We Shall Overcome†, were put through the folk process, where a song is passed on and alterationsRead MoreThe Great Leaders Of The Civil Rights Movement1563 Words   |  7 Pages They seem to be forgotten until they are highlighted once again. Another example of a person that was not really highlighted for their actions is Nina Simone. She made an impact on the Civil Right Movement that not many other artist or celebrity would have done. When you think of the Civil Rights Movement the first three that come to mind of course are, Martin Luther King Jr., Malco m X, and Rosa Parks. So, when someone hears the name Nina Simone the two most common responses might be â€Å"Who’sRead MoreSocial Movements : Black Civil Rights2647 Words   |  11 PagesSocial movements are vital to the establishment of our societies, and they way we are governed. Social movements help the less privileged band together to create a stronger voice among a sea of political correctness and unlawfully rule that the public supposedly have to abide by without question. Movements create this new form of platform that, if done successfully, are able to create a worldwide frenzy where people from across all walks of life, including politicians, academics, the less fortunateRead MoreThe Civil Rights Movement911 Words   |  4 PagesThe Civil Rights Movement: Martin Luther King Jr. Martin Luther King Jr. changed history not only for African American’s, but for all who live in the United States. Martin was born on January 15, 1929, in Atlanta, Georgia. As a child Martin attended many public segregated schools throughout Georgia until he graduated at the age of fifteen. Following high school, Martin Luther King Jr. attended many colleges such as, Morehouse College, Crozer Theological Seminary, and Boston University. While studyingRead MoreCauses Of The Civil Rights Movement954 Words   |  4 Pagesquote was very much true. Post civil war times were hard on African Americans. Even though at the time they were considered free, they were often criticized and discriminated against. Finally, shootings, brutality, and unfair treatment were enough. In an effort to end racial segregation and discrimination against African-Americans all over the country, they took a stand. This was known as the Civil Rights Movement. There were many interesting events that cause d this movement. The three main causes thatRead MoreThe Civil Rights Movement Essay1601 Words   |  7 PagesThe Civil Rights Movement â€Å"I have a dream that my four little children will one day live in a nation where they will not be judged by the color of their skin but by the content of their character.† This was a speech by Martin Luther King Jr. Even one hundred years after slavery was banned, African Americans were still being treated unfairly. Martin Luther King Jr. was one of the most famous leaders of the Civil Rights movement in the 1960’s. The Civil Rights movement was a movement of AfricanRead MoreThe Civil Rights Movement Essay1259 Words   |  6 Pages The civil right movement refers to the reform movement in the United States beginning in the 1954 to 1968 led primarily by Blacks for outlawing racial discrimination against African-Americans to prove the civil rights of personal Black citizen. For ten decades after the Emancipation Proclamation, African-Americans in Southern states still live a rigid unequal world of deprive right of citizenship, segregation and various forms of oppression, including race-inspired violence. â€Å"JimRead MoreThe Civil Rights Movement Essay1190 Words   |  5 Pages The Civil Rights Movement The 13th amendment, passed on the first of January, 1865 abolished slavery throughout America. Although African Americans were considered free after this amendment was approved, they still had a long and arduous struggle to absolute freedom. Before the Civil Rights Act of 1964, segregation in the United States was frequently used throughout many of the Southern and Border States. Schools, bathrooms, libraries, and even water fountains were segregated. Though there wereRead MoreCivil Rights Movement Essay797 Words   |  4 PagesThe Civil Rights Movement, also known as the American Civil Rights, was a mass movement during the 1950s and 1960s. It was one of the most intricate social movements of mankind. The Civil Rights Movement was a period where African Americans did not have the same equal rights or treatment as the whites. Instead, African Americans were segregated from whites by not going to school together, having to sit in the back of the bus, not being able to move freely, or not having the right to vote. Over the

Monday, May 11, 2020

The Economy Is Making Progress Because Of The Mass...

The economy is making progress because of the mass production of technology. Due to globalization, innovations of technology has created an economic growth and made communication easy. A challenge that humanity must face, is the skill of cultural diversity. These conditions are altered because of the renewed dialogue among cultures and civilizations. (Ogohi) Many people in the 21st century benefit because of accessibility, whereas the Romans during the 1st century received information from being lectured and reading a book. Today, people depend on technology for; Information, Communication, Pleasure and Business. If catastrophic effect occurred that shut down all operational systems, society would be lost in confusion and dependant on our intelligence. (Business Insider) The Positive and Negative Effects of Globalization The negative effects of economic globalization are the loss of employment. The inefficient uncompetitive industries and loss of the monopoly power of local industries occurred because of businessmen and traders who exploit consumers by charging them higher prices for imported goods and supplying lower quality products, compared to internationally available quality. Other negative impact of globalization in a social-cultural aspect is that cultural values are lessoning in the western parts of the world. The most positive effects of globalization are elimination of local monopolies, elimination of inefficiency, and access to opportunities available allShow MoreRelatedUsing the four passages and your own knowledge, assess the view that the impact of the First World War was the main reason for the booming economy in the USA in the 1920’s1661 Words   |  7 Pagesreason for the booming economy in the USA in the 1920’s (40 Marks) I believe that the First World War did not have as much of a significant impact on the American economy as mass production, infact i however see that instead of benefiting the economy the War in fact had the reverse effect to that of which interpretation A and C suggest that the war was the most important factor of the 1920’s American economic boom. Firstly, the biggest reason as to why mass production was the main reason forRead MoreHydrogen And Hydrogen As A Fuel1518 Words   |  7 Pagesmost efficient furl because of its abundance and the production of harmless bi-products as compared fossil fuel. Despite the abundance in its natural existence, Hydrogen can also be obtained through processes such as the electrolysis of water and methanol steam conversion. Hydrogen as a fuel is capable of the replacement of most of the other sources of energy. However, Hydrogen faces numerous obstacles to its entry into the economy and the utilization by human beings. The technology to contain and manageRead MoreEssay about Great Britain and the Industrial Revolution830 Words   |  4 Pagesearly stages of factory production. In addition, Britain was situated at a critical point for international trade. Its position between the United States and the rest of Europe allowed them to have a serious impact in all matters of trade. Likewise, a multitude of navigable waterways, easy access to the sea, and a mild climate all contributed to the onset of industrialism. Britains topography was conducive to industrialism because its diversity allowed for the production of many agricultural productsRead MoreThe Impact Of Cyber Physical Systems On The Manufacturing Environment1242 Words   |  5 Pages warehousing systems and production facilities in the shape of Cyber-Physical Systems (CPS). In the manufacturing environment, these Cyber-Physical Systems comprise smart machines, storage systems and production facilities capable of autonomously exchanging information, triggering actions and controlling each other independently. I4 holds huge potential. Smart factories allow individual customer requirements to be met, whilst efficiency obtained in automated production is maintained. Meaning thatRead MoreNew Era Greed Of The Grocery Store Essay924 Words   |  4 Pagestrust is slowly diminishing with online grocery shopping. B. A once personal task is becoming impersonal as we progress. Globalization and the technological advancements have made it it difficult for the consumer to actually know what they are getting and changing the idea of the grocery store all together. C. Consumer food demands has made a corner mom- and – pop grocer to a fast, mass, and globally producing supermarket and there is a price to pay. II. Background A. Chain grocery stores startedRead MoreThe Great Depression Of The 1920 S1706 Words   |  7 PagesAt the beginning of the 1920’s, the United States was beginning to recover the economy now that World War I was over. During this decade, America became the richest nation in the world. The 1920’s, also referred to as the roaring twenties, was a period of dramatic and social change. More Americans during this era lived in the city rather than on a farm. The nation’s wealth doubled throughout the roaring twenties, and lead the Stock Market Crash of 1929 where the Great Depression followed after thisRead MoreThe Relationship Between Art And Commerce1420 Words   |  6 Pagescreativity as a vehicle for economic interest, while others view it as pure dedication for personal creative needs. The world as we live in today sees the creative industry, including visual and performing arts, sound recording, book publishing, and movie making, a highly commercialized global enterprise. People constantly buy and sell art products in a highly active market. Although it is difficult to conclude whether art and commerce is perfectly compatible or mutually exclusive, one thing is true, thatRead MoreResearch Paper Henry Ford1111 Words   |  5 PagesRodriguez English 10 Mrs. Toman March 29, 2011 Research Paper: Henry Ford Imagine how life would be if our society did not have cars. Today, our society is dependent on cars for our daily routines. From transporting our food, clothes, and technology to just going to the store across the street, cars are a very important part of our society. In the 19th century, only the wealthy and upper middle class had access to automobiles, and they only used cars for fancy transportation and to show offRead MoreThe Increase Of A High Unemployment Rate1287 Words   |  6 Pagesin the fact that they both can be exchanged for currency, which is a necessity in life. Arendt explains that both the need for work and labor in our society has decreased rapidly. She states, â€Å"Whatever we do, we are supposed to do for the sake of ‘making a living’; such is the verdict of society, and the number of people, especially in the professions who might challenge it, has decreased rapidly† (127). Tying this into the detriment of a high unemployment rate, we curre ntly have a 5.5% rate of unemploymentRead MoreNon Market Strategy Recommendation For Foxconn1542 Words   |  7 PagesTO: Foxconn Technology Group (Hon Hai Precision Industry Co., Ltd.) FROM: Kavon Baradaran and Julia Yang, Poka -Yoke Consulting DATE: October, 25, 2015 SUBJECT: Non-Market Strategy Recommendation for Foxconn Foxconn Technology Group is the number one firm among Electronics Manufacturing Services (EMS) providers since 2005, and is a global firm that goes beyond China and Taiwan. However, recent market research and analysis show that Foxconn is facing a rather unfavorable publicity regarding its

Wednesday, May 6, 2020

Written Analysis Final Project Free Essays

Getting along with same sex marriage by EYE written Analysts Ms. Bawd I have read a few articles. I have had many discussions with some of the very conservative religious students I work with. We will write a custom essay sample on Written Analysis Final Project or any similar topic only for you Order Now I have been trying to figure out if the main front of the opposition to same sex marriage has a logical argument or if it is just a knocker reaction because religious conservatives think everyone that participate or even allows it is going to hell. I had the chance to interview Mr.. James, a student of a local Baptist college on his viewpoint of the subject. He indicates he eels that it is a sin and against Gods will, but that God gave man free will and he can choose his own fate. And, while he feels the need to try to help and educate homosexuals, if they disagree with those ideas, forcing the issue will only drive them further away. In his words, â€Å"forcing the Bible down someone’s’ throat is no way to build a flock†. The impacted population of the opposition to same sex marriage is all of the gays and lesbians of our country, studies estimate around 3. % or roughly 9 million people. Monsoons) Studies suggest lower general health among same sex peoples, one theory is this is due to one partner who has health insurance from their employer that cannot cover the other because they are not married and therefore not legally related. (Miller) Why we have this issue is because many people, notably Christians, feel that homosexuality is a conscious decision rather than an emotional attraction, because God said it was a sin. Leviticus 20:13, states, â€Å"If a man also lie with mankind, as he elite with a woman, both of them have committed an abomination: they shall surely be put to death† (KAVA). This was reaffirmed by the Pope, leader of the arrest group of Christians, who ironically dresses like Liberace stunt double. The problem here is 79. 5% of the U. S. Is Christian. Or close to 247 million people. (Fairchild) This seriously outnumbers the numbers of homosexuals looking to marry. Some feel it as a personal attack on their beliefs; others feel the need to save the homosexuals from the impending doom of eternity in hell. Although they are probably taking things out of context, I feel the bible was written to speak to the people of the day, and customs were different; there was less understanding of the perversity of the world then. Conservative folks back off the legal tactics. Laws that target only one group are unconstitutional. Former President Bill Clinton recently made a statement, â€Å"When I signed the bill, I included a statement with the admonition that ‘enactment of this legislation should not, despite the fierce and at times divisive rhetoric surrounding it, be understood to provide an excuse for discrimination. Reading those words today, I know now that, even worse than providing an excuse for discrimination, the law is itself discriminatory. It should be overturned. (Weber) Our First Amendment protections on the freedom of speech and religion, apply to all. By all means speak your minds, tell others how you feel about the issue. This is what is so great about this country, you ca n do that. Realize though, that same law that gives you the right to speak your mind, also give others the right to not listen. Please, the same law that protects you also protects everyone else. While you have the right to speak your mind, most will agree your rights stop at interfering with others’ rights. Christian conservatives, you are so intent on having our way, but the more you push your views upon everyone the more you push them away! Remember Mr.. James, the Baptist student ministers’ statement about forcing the Bible down someone’s throat is no way to gather a flock. Yes, convey your ideals, but you cannot educate someone if they do not want to listen. And, offending them is a good way to close their ears and minds. In the argument about everyone’s rights there was a compromise offered of a â€Å"civil union†. This gave same sex couples some of the rights they were looking for, becoming a family making health insurance extendable to the partner, child custody between partners, survivorship of property in the event of one partner’s death. This was not upheld at the federal level, only a handful of states accommodated. Somehow this was not enough; you had to have â€Å"marriage† and not a â€Å"civil union†. (GLAD) Same but separate somehow. It is not so much the word as it is the idea. I was hung up on why â€Å"marriage† was so important; the civil unions were on the right track. But if you were to say to me that Which was not a real religion, I would very likely go off on the discrimination of conservatives. Like many things, though, it takes time. The Thirteenth Amendment was ratified December 1865 to abolish slavery. There are still pockets of racists who would chain up blacks if they could. â€Å"Only’ two years ago, Which was recognized by the Veterans Administration, then the rest of the government as a legitimate religion. Still there are evangelical types who still get in my face and try to save me from imaginary (to me) monsters. I was raised in a catholic household. Since the majority against this are Christians and I know what it means to be Christian, I want to know how you can UT this much energy into complaining about same sex marriage when there are still homeless people, starving children, all over our country and the planet to take care of. How can you put complaining about homosexuals on a higher priority than starving children? I think even Jesus would say homosexuality is wrong, but spend his time feeding the children, preach but not force. Homosexuals, Offer a compromise, take the unions and get your foot in the door. Even though one law wiped out slavery, the civil rights movement took a long time, and it came in stages. Even when other regress was made, interracial marriages still had to be overcome. Get the civil unions, push to get it to the federal level, get more equal footing, then when it is almost the same, push to call it marriage. I think you have to work on people a few at a time. Pushing against that many people all at once isn’t going to get you far. Logically, why should same sex marriages be outlawed? How many religions are out there, and how many claim to be the one true way to God? There are a few that don’t recognize only one god, then there are the atheists who believe there is no god. If we re not going to dictate a religion, we cannot endorse any religions views on marriage. If our laws state that government and religion must be separate, why then, are we even debating the notions that the marriage defined in the bible is the only acceptable definition, when marriage is a legal institution? Unfortunately humans are an emotional creature. Some people so believe there is going to be hell to pay for homosexuality, those people have that right. Others believe that first group is out of their minds, they are within their rights. People are beginning to realize the ideals of he past don’t hold up to intellectual scrutiny. Some, well many, people are trying to hold on to a tradition, one that they have believed in since they can remember. Every step we move away from that as a society, chips away at the foundations of their beliefs. Change is hard for some; they may have to accept the changes reluctantly. We are getting there though, these same people who are trying to hold on to outdated ideas, which are thousands of years old, have accepted women are out of the kitchen and the colored are out of the fields and the earth is round and goes round the sun. How to cite Written Analysis Final Project, Papers

Friday, May 1, 2020

Security And Privacy Of Biometric Recognition

Question: Research into the different types of biometric systems which are currently available for access control systems. Briefly describe the techniques and technologies used for each type and discuss the advantages and disadvantages for the three types below. Give an example application when each type could be used. Answer: The biometric sensors or the gain access to control systems usually are classified into two kinds these are physiological Biometrics and the Behavioral Biometric.The physiological biometrics might include the following; face recognition, palm and gait recognition as well as the Iris recognition (Myers, 2017, pp. 43). On the other hand the behavioral biometric include the signature, voice recognition. Physiological biometrics Palm and gait recognition When it comes to the palm recognition there is a three dimensional image of the hand which is collected and compared to the stored sample. This device performs a great amount of the identification within a short time. These technologies are installed in the situations where there is a large number of individuals such as the airports (Prabhakar, Pankanti Jain, 2003, pp. 33-42). On the other hand this technology is expressed not only by the way an individual looks or sounds, but also the manner in which a person walks. The technology is applied to moving perambulatory subjects. This technology is useful especially in the surveillance (Ross Jain, 2004, pp. 134-145). Advantages They could be utilized in a range of the environment. They can perform a great amount of identification within a short period of time (Ross Jain, 2004, pp. 145). Disadvantage The performance of the technology could deteriorate over time. They have the added difficulty of having to sample and identify the movement especially for the gait recognition. Face recognition This kind of biometric computer application that is capable of identifying as well as verifying a individual from the digital image through comparing as well as analyzing the patterns. These kind of biometric systems are used in the security systems (Prabhakar, Pankanti Jain, 2003, pp. 33-42). The application works with the face prints and the systems are capable of recognizing 80 nodal points on the human face. Advantages The technology is capable of searching against the static image such as the driver license or even the passports. It is the only biometric which is capable of operating without the cooperation of the user. Matching of the accuracy is reduced as a result of the acquisition environment. Disadvantages Matching of the accuracy is reduced as a result of the reduced changes especially in the physiological aspects. Most of the devices are unable to enroll some percent of the users as well as performance could be deteriorated over time. Iris recognition In this kind of bio-metric the method used in identifying individual depends on the single patterns in the region of the ring shaped encircled the pupil of eye (Prabhakar, Pankanti Jain, 2003, pp. 33-42). Furthermore, it includes a blue, gray or brown color with the hard patterns which are recognizable when one looks closely. Advantages There are high levels of accuracy with this biometric This biometric technology can maintain stability of the features over some time. Disadvantage The disadvantage of iris biometric is that it has a propensity for the false rejection. The acquisition of the images entails some moderate attention as well as training. Behavioral Biometric Voice recognition This is a technology that is utilized to produce speech patterns via combining both behavioral along with physiological aspects which are captured through processing the speech technology. The significant properties that are utilized to authenticate the speech is the nasal tone (Ross Jain, 2004, 140). This biometric could be separated into the various categories based on the type of authentication domain such as fixed text method, text independent method or even the conversational techniques. Signature recognition This type of biometric method is used in analyzing as well as measuring the physical activity of signing the pressure utilized, the order of the stroke and the speed. A number of the biometric are utilized to review the visual images of the signatures. This biometric might be operated into alternative ways for example the static and the dynamic. Advantages and disadvantages of the biometrics Advantages Increased security: Biometric technology could offer a higher degree when it comes to the security as compared to the other traditional authentication methods. Increased convenience: the use of the biometric authentication allows higher levels of the rights and the privileges with a much success to the authentication (Myers, 2017, pp. 49). They allow an increase convenience since they can protect the data without any need for the human intervention. Increased accountability: the deployment of the biometric application to secure access to the computers as well as other facilities eliminate any occurrences such as the buddy punching, thus offer a higher level of certainty on who to access the system. Disadvantages There is tendency of privacy abuse due to the non-cooperative enrollment as well as identification capabilities. (b) Privacy-enhancing technologies (PETs) used on the Internet Communications anonymizers: These technologies usually hide the real online identity such as the IP address and the email address and then replace them with the non-traceable identity. These technologies could be applied to the email, web browsing, as well as the instant messaging. Enhanced privacy ID: It is a digital signature algorithm supporting anonymity. It provides a typical grouping public verification crucial related to lots of the unique private signature keys. The application was made to permit prove a device to the external party what type of the device it is without necessary revealing the exact identity. Access to personal data: This service providers provides the infrastructure that allows the users to inspect, correct or perhaps remove all the data that is stored at the service provider. Different types of threats and vulnerabilities which can be used to attack the WSN Denial of service attack (DoS) These occurs when the attacker continuously bombards the Access point which is targeted or even a network with the bogus requests, failure information, as well as the commands (Alam De, 2014, pp. 67). DoS attack is an event which diminishes or even eliminate the capacity of the network in performing the expected function through the failures of the hardware, bugs in the software, exhaustion of the resources, as well as the malicious transmitting of the higher energy signals . The communication techniques could be jammed entirely in case such attacks might be successful (Lupu, Rudas, Demiralp Mastorakis, 2009, pp.54). Other denial of the services attacks is much possible such as inhibiting communication through the violation of the MAC protocol (Lupu, Rudas, Demiralp Mastorakis, 2009, pp. 59). These might result in authentic end users to manage to get to the network and might cause the network in crashing (Ghildiyal, Mishra, Gupta Garg, 2014, pp. 1163). This attack generally rely on the abuse of the protocols for instance the Extensible Authentication protocol. How to mitigate the threat The technique which is used to prevent this attack includes the payment for the network resources, push back as well as a strong authentication along with the identification of the traffic. Moreover, there are some other techniques which are used in securing the reprogramming process such as the authentication flows (Lupu, Rudas, Demiralp Mastorakis, 2009, pp. 65). The choice for the DoS is to rekey the request packet. Therefore, it comes from the node only when two consecutive keys have been invalidated or lifetime of the key has expired. Sybil Attack: Wireless sensor network is vulnerable to the Sybil attack. In this case the node could be more than one node which is utilizing various identities of the legal nodes. A given single node could present multi identities to the other nodes which are in the network (Lupu, Rudas, Demiralp Mastorakis, 2009). Sybil attack it tries to degrade the integrity of the data, security as well as the utilization of the resource which the distributed algorithm attempts to achieve. Figure 1: The diagram show the Sybil attack How to mitigate the vulnerability This vulnerability could be mitigated through authentication as well as encryption mechanisms which prevent the outsiders from launching the attack to the wireless sensor networks (Ngo, Makihara, Nagahara, Mukaigawa Yagi, 2014, pp. 228-237). Moreover, the use of the public key cryptography could be used to avoid the insider attack. This method could be very costly especially to the resource constructed sensor networks. Identities need to be verified through use of the public key cryptography (Fragkiadakis, Angelakis Tragos, 2014, pp. 78). Other ways to prevent the vulnerability would be through use of the radio resource testing, verification of the key sets especially to the random pre-distribution of the key and the registration and position verification particularly in the sensor networks. Software attacks When it comes to the software program dependent attacks on the WSNs, the attacker might try making adjustment to the software code in the memory or perhaps exploiting the known vulnerabilities when it comes to the code of the software (Galbally, Marcel Fierrez, 2014, pp. 710-724). Example of a well known attack is the buffer overflow attack. In this attack the method attempts to store the data beyond the boundaries of the set length of the buffer, therefore results to overwriting extra data on the adjoining locations of the memory. How to mitigate the vulnerability/threat There are various countermeasures which could be employed to secure the WSN software and prevent it against software attacks they are follows: Authentication and validation of the software through remote software based attestation especially to the sensor networks. Defining accurate trust of the boundaries to the various components and users. Utilizing of the restricted environment for example the Java Virtual Machine (Rao, Rai Narain, 2017, pp. 4-8). Attestation of the hardware: It is the trusted computing group platform as well as the next generation acquire computing base that provides this kind of attestation. A more equivalent model might be utilized in the sensor networks (Kumar, Jain Barwal, 2014, pp. 859-868). Dynamic runtime encryption and decryption for the software program. This really is much like encrypting or even decrypting the data except that the code is running on the device which is being decrypted (Wu, Ota, Dong Li, 2016, pp. 416-424). This could prevent any kind of malicious user from exploiting this particular software. References Alam, S., De, D. (2014). Analysis of security threats in wireless sensor network. arXiv preprint arXiv:1406.0298. Fragkiadakis, A., Angelakis, V., Tragos, E. Z. (2014). Securing cognitive wireless sensor networks: a survey. International Journal of Distributed Sensor Networks, 2014. Galbally, J., Marcel, S., Fierrez, J. (2014). Image quality assessment for fake biometric detection: Application to iris, fingerprint, and face recognition. IEEE transactions on image processing, 23(2), 710-724. Ghildiyal, S., Mishra, A. K., Gupta, A., Garg, N. (2014). Analysis of Denial of Service (DOS) Attacks in wireless sensor networks. IJRET: International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology, 3, 2319-1163. Kumar, V., Jain, A., Barwal, P. N. (2014). Wireless sensor networks: security issues,challenges and solutions. International Journal of Information and Computation Technology (IJICT), 4(8), 859-868. Lupu, T. G., Rudas, I., Demiralp, M., Mastorakis, N. (2009, September). Main types of attacksin wireless sensor networks. In WSEAS International Conference. Proceedings. Recent Advances in Computer Engineering (No. 9). WSEAS. Myers, S. A. (2017). U.S. Patent No. 9697409B2. Washington, DC: U.S. Patent and Trademark Office. Ngo, T. T., Makihara, Y., Nagahara, H., Mukaigawa, Y., Yagi, Y. (2014). The largest inertial sensor-based gait database and performance evaluation of gait-based personal authentication. Pattern Recognition, 47(1), 228-237. Prabhakar, S., Pankanti, S., Jain, A. K. (2003). Biometric Recognition: Security and privacy concerns. IEEE security privacy, 99(2), 33-42. Rao, J D. P., Rai, M. S., Narain, B. (2017). A study of Network Attacks and Features of Secure Protocols. Research Journal of Engineering and Technology, 8(1), 04-08. Ross, A., Jain, A. (2004, May). Biometric sensor interoperability: A case study in fingerprints. In ECCV Workshop BioAW (pp. 134-145). Wu, J., Ota, K., Dong, M., Li, C. (2016). A hierarchical security framework for defending against sophisticated attacks on wireless sensor networks in smart cities. IEEE Access, 4, 416-424.

Saturday, March 21, 2020

Langston Hughes vs. Claude McKay in the Harlem Renaissance

Langston Hughes vs. Claude McKay in the Harlem Renaissance Free Online Research Papers The first three decades of the 1900’s were the first time that the African American culture was taken seriously by the Caucasian community. Several factors, including the Plessy vs. Ferguson case which allowed racial segregation in 1896, led to what is known as the Great Migration. Job opportunities and far less amounts of racism were significant reasons for more than seven million African Americans moving to northern states. The concentration area of the Great Migration was Harlem in New York City. This district of New York was originally intended for white laborers who preferred to commute to the city rather than live there. The housing developers were over ambitious and had created far too much living space that white middle-class Americans were not interested in and as a result, the properties were sold to African American real estate agents who, in turn, rented the apartments out to black tenants. Between 1900 and 1920 the black population in Harlem had doubled and b ecame known as â€Å"the Black Mecca† (Biography.com). Not only did African Americans bring their labor skills to New York City, they brought their culture and their talents in art, music, and poetry. Their talents in these areas opened the eyes of their Caucasian counterparts and helped their fight for racial equality. With the excitement of these new and different ideas in the arts that finally had gotten the opportunity to emerge, the Harlem Renaissance was born. Two of the major contributors to this era were authors, (James) Langston Hughes and Claude McKay, who both, among a vast array of works, wrote poetry pertaining to the sufferings and strengths of African American culture. Although they had many of the same ideas and messages to get across in their poetry, their delivery was extremely different. Hughes’ poetry took a calm approach in which he talked about the beauty of the African American culture, while McKay was almost violent, talking about fighting for their rights rather than waiting for them to come. Hughes was born in 1902 in Joplin, Missouri and was bounced around all over the country and Mexico between his mother, father, and grandmother. He began writing at an early age and published his first book in 1926. By the time he died in 1967, Hughes had written an impressive number of books of poetry, novels, plays, musicals and operas, children’s poetry, among others, and had become one of the major contributing authors of the Harlem Renaissance (Jackson). Expressing the talents, culture, and need for African American equality was a major theme in the poetry of Langston Hughes. In his first published poem, The Negro Speaks of Rivers, Hughes metaphorically compares the soul of an African American man to a river, saying they are both deep. Rivers are often personified in poetry and used as symbols of both life and death. The rivers mentioned in this poem, the Euphrates, Congo, Nile, and Mississippi are all significant foundations for the cities that have formed near them. Using these specifically, Hughes is trying to portray the importance African Americans have had in setting the foundations in American culture. The Negro Speaks of Rivers is also greatly about African American heritage and the strength within that heritage, which the rivers also signify. The histories these rivers hold go hand in hand with the history and ancestry of African Americans. The Congo and the Mississippi Rivers both hold negative connotation with the African American slave trade but they still contribute a significant amount of depth, like the others, to the soul of the speaker, the entire African American race. The heritage of the rivers resembles the heritage of the African American people and their wisdom and strength which helped them overcome a vast array of adversity, particularly within the last couple centuries which consisted of slavery and extreme racism. The poem is also known as a tribute to the African American culture which Hughes said came from his own life. In his autobiography, The Big Sea, Hughes talks about a racist man he encountered while crossing the Mississippi River on a journey to see his father. The experience upset and frustrated him, but also got him to think about his father’s distaste for their race and Hughes’ own pride and admiration for what Hughes calls the â€Å"bravest people possible - the Negroes from the Southern ghettoes - facing tremendous odds† (Hughes). He then thought of the Mississippi as a symbol for bravery and mentioned his admiration for it in The Negro Speaks of Rivers when he talks about it turning golden as a resu lt of Abraham Lincoln’s work in the abolition of slavery. Another poem in which Hughes talks about his pride for his African American culture is I, Too. In this poem, Hughes talks about how one day the white community will be able to see the true beauty of an African American â€Å"And be ashamed† (17) of how they acted in the past. The pride he has within this poem for his culture is tied back to The Negro Speaks of Rivers. This shows that he consistently incorporates his pride in the African American community within his poetry. The main purpose of I, Too, is to express the need for equality between the separate races. He starts the poem off by declaring that ‘I’ (meaning African Americans) am an American, just the same as a white person. The second stanza talks about African Americans having to eat in the kitchen when company comes over. This stanza is talking about the segregation that is in place. When Hughes says â€Å"But I laugh, And eat well, And grow strong† (5-7), he is saying that being segregated does not bother the African American community. They are, in fact, becoming stronger people internally and in the last stanza, he makes it clear that they know that one day the segregation will be over, and they will be eating with the white people at the dining room table with the company. Hughes also says that nobody will dare tell any African Americans to eat in the kitchen, but besides, they will not want to, for they will be able to finally see and appreciate how beautiful A frican Americans are. They, too, are America. The poetry of Langston Hughes was a significant part of the Harlem Renaissance that expressed the importance of African American culture and the need for legal equality between the races. His poetry took a passive stance that looked toward the future, where he talked about the beauty African American culture holds and waiting for what is right to come to them. He did not want to violently fight for social freedom, he felt it would all come in time. The works of Claude McKay, however, took a more assertive, sometimes aggressive motion towards racial equality. He urged his readers to stand up for what should belong to them and to not let anyone get in their way. McKay was born in Jamaica in 1890 and published his first book of poetry at the age of 22. During his life, he moved to the United States, Russia, France, and finally settled in Harlem before his death in 1948. He studied Communism and wrote several poems and novels pertaining to the sufferings of African Americans (Giles). His aggressive stance that the African Americans should take on the heavy amount of racism made him an extremely important factor in the Harlem Renaissance. Growing up outside of America made the racial tension within the states more of a dramatic experience for him. After seeing the effects of the 1919 Chicago race riots that resulted in the deaths of 15 Caucasians and 23 African Americans (Essig), McKay was compelled to write a poem in response to it. The harsh language used in If We Must Die shows McKay’s sincere distaste for the way his people are being treated. The main message in this poem is that if the white America insists on persecuting African Americans, they must not surrender, but fight for their true freedom until the end. He compares the weaknesses that they have previously shown to hogs being helplessly corralled into holding areas to wait to die. In this poem, he clearly states that he is aware that the whites will probably end up murdering all of the African Americans who resist them. Even though this is true, McKay wants them to fight back, â€Å"Like men we’ll face the murderous cowardly pack, Pressed to the wall, dying, but fighting back† (13-14), he says. Unlike Hughes, he has no intention of waiting around for his lawful rights to come to him. He is best known for his poem, The White House, in which he describes the frustration he feels for being kept out of the white population and not having a voice within the country. The first line says â€Å"Your door is shut against my tightened face.† He immediately points out the purpose of the poem, to indicate his dissatisfaction with the Caucasian American population. They will not let him in to all of the rights and liberties he is owed. In the next few lines, he says that he is okay with this being shut out, because it is only making him stronger and more courageous to face these difficulties. All the sufferings that the American government has imposed on him will only make him a stronger man and make him more prepared to fight for what he feels he deserves. â€Å"Oh, I must keep my heart inviolate, Against the poison of your deadly hate† (13-14). In these last two lines, McKay is saying that even though it is going to be a long journey, in which the African American community will have fight against the extreme racism of the American government, they will keep their emotions under control and continue to pursue what it right. Occurrences like the race riots in Chicago fueled the fire for African American authors during the Harlem Renaissance era, like Langston Hughes and Claude McKay. It inspired them to write the pieces that are still read today, nearly 100 years later. The vast differences the messages their poems held are a large reason for their poetry being so dynamic and able to reach all different typed of people. Although they suffered tremendously, they were able to get their frustrations and feeling out on paper and become the iconic Harlem Renaissance writers they are known as today. Work Cited Biography.com. Harlem Renaissance Black History Milestones on. Biography.com. A E Television Networks, 2010. Web. 08 Apr. 2010. Essig, Steven. Race Riots. Encyclopedia of Chicago. The Newberry Library, 2005. Web. 09. Giles, Freda. Claude McKays Life. Welcome to English  « Department of English, College of LAS, University of Illinois. Oxford University Press, Feb. 2000. Web. 09 Apr. 2010. Hughes, Langston. The Big Sea: An Autobiography. New York: Thunders Mouth, 1986. Print. Jackson, Andrew P. Langston Hughes. The Red Hot Jazz Archive. Jazz Is Timeless Records. Web. 08 Apr. 2010. Research Papers on Langston Hughes vs. Claude McKay in the Harlem RenaissanceBook Review on The Autobiography of Malcolm X19 Century Society: A Deeply Divided EraHip-Hop is ArtBringing Democracy to AfricaHonest Iagos Truth through DeceptionCapital PunishmentWhere Wild and West MeetCanaanite Influence on the Early Israelite ReligionThe Effects of Illegal ImmigrationMind Travel

Thursday, March 5, 2020

Addiction vs. Dependency

Addiction vs. Dependency Addiction vs. Dependency Addiction vs. Dependency By Maeve Maddox A reader asks if there is any difference between addiction and dependency. The Chicago Manual of Style offers this straightforward distinction: One is physically addicted to something but psychologically dependent on something. I like the simplicity of this explanation, but a casual Web tour reveals a difference of opinion when the context is drug use. For example: Physical dependence in and of itself does not constitute addiction, but it often accompanies addiction.- National Institute on Drug Abuse (US government site). A number of substances produce psychological and/or physical dependence without producing an addiction.- Addiction Science Forum. Addiction can occur without physical dependence [and] physical dependence can occur without addiction.- The National Alliance of Advocates for Buprenorphine Treatment. Clearly, the use of the words dependency and addiction must be handled with care when writing about their medical implications. For the non-medical writer whose purpose is to choose between the words on the basis of connotation, a look at their etymologies offers a basis for choice. Addiction implies enslavement. The word derives from a Latin verb that meant, among other things, â€Å"to sell into slavery.† An addicted person no longer belongs to himself. Addiction implies a state from which there is no escape. Dependency, on the other hand, carries the connotation of temporality. A child’s dependency ends with maturity. Dependency connotes a situation from which there is a way out. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Misused Words category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:7 Classes and Types of PhrasesHow to spell "in lieu of"20 Names of Body Parts and Elements and Their Figurative Meanings

Monday, February 17, 2020

Microbiology-Leishmaniasis Disease Control Plan Essay

Microbiology-Leishmaniasis Disease Control Plan - Essay Example icated as the most common form that causes a sore at the bite site and even leaves a permanent scar, Diffuse cutaneous Leishmaniasis which resembles leprosy and is difficult to treat which starts like cancer of the skin leading to damage of tissue especially on the nose and mouth (Elliott, 2011). Although the approach to controlling the causal agent of this disease depends on the behavior of the target vector, some of its transmissions which are associated with activities in the forests can be reduced by ensuring that no dwellings are close to the forests. The Governments of the United States and Spain have done a lot in the vector control particularly by spraying insecticides on tree trunks resting sites. This has highly achieved in providing short term protection to the residents around forested regions. In addition, clearing of forests around homesteads combined with insecticide application in the cleared regions, has led in reduction of sand flies and the yearly reported number of people who are infected with the disease. Likewise, repellents can be useful under certain circumstances such as when people are going into the forests for occupational or recreational purposes. In such cases the use of insecticide treated nets and spraying the forests is advised since it reduc es the rate of transmission. Another major measure towards controlling the disease done is clearing trees and bushes over a radius of at least one kilometer around houses (Elliott, 2011). One of the main methods that I propose in order to control sand flies with insecticides is indoor residual spraying which should be used in areas which have a very active rate of transmission. This requires good knowledge of the epidemiology of Leishmaniasis and the local vector behavioral characteristics and the ecology. The effectiveness of these largely depends on other factors such as the method of application and overall coverage, the quality of the insecticide used and the type of surface sprayed or

Monday, February 3, 2020

Usefulness of Hofstedes National Culture model Essay

Usefulness of Hofstedes National Culture model - Essay Example The main categories include masculinity versus femininity, individualism versus collectivism, uncertainty avoidance, and power distance. Globalization, which is a concept of free trade, has made the world an increasingly intimate place. Intimacy, in this sense, refers to mutual interdependence that countries possess in both cultural and business terms. The 17th and the 18th century trade made businesspersons realize the different potential and benefits that various countries possessed. Furthermore, the ideas of people such as Adam Smith and David Ricardo quantified the prospects of free trade and globalization. However, besides the raw economic benefit of world trade, businesses realized the essence of culture in understanding the behavior of employees and given market. Culture could act either as an impediment or a propeller of business. The Geert Hofstede model is helpful to business organizations in numerous ways. To begin with, the model may help a business organization comprehend the power structures of a society towards designing a corresponding administrative model. In many business organizations, employees constantly question what makes up a good leader. Unfortunately, Geert Hofstede uncovers that there is no particular way of leading a group. Despite the developments of knowledge documents on management, existing cultural conditions influence the attitudes towards power. The concept of power distance helps an organization comprehend the tolerance of a given society towards power inequality. Large power distance societies manifest a greater tolerance towards power inequality in institutions. In this sense, affected organizations should develop administrative structures that possess clear separation of powers (Piepenburg 2011, p. 178). The managers, thus, should acquire considerable power over the employees, w ho are expected to be utterly subordinate to the seniors. Such a culture, therefore,

Sunday, January 26, 2020

Natural Output Levels: Fiscal and Monetary Policy Impact

Natural Output Levels: Fiscal and Monetary Policy Impact In this essay I discuss whether the fiscal and monetary policy has impact on the natural level of output. Natural level of output, in other words potential output is a total gross domestic product (GDP) that could be produced by an economy if all its resources were fully employed. This means if the economy is at natural level of output, the unemployment rate equals the NAIRU or the natural rate of unemployment and other factories, such as technology and capital are kept at optimal capacity level. We can derive the natural level of output function. It is given by: Yn=Nn=L(1-un) where natural level of output is equal to natural level of employment and it is equal to the labor force L times 1 minus the natural rate unemployment rate un. In addition, the natural level of output satisfies this equation: F((1-Yn)/L,z)=1/(1+ÃŽÂ ¼) The natural level of output is such that, at the associated rate of unemployment, the real wage chosen in wage setting the left side of equation is equal to the real wage implied by price setting the right side of equation. However, it is hard to change the natural level of output as it is difficult to change the natural level of unemployment. Lets consider why natural unemployment rate cannot be changed by government policies. Famous economists Friedman and Phelps explained that using Phillips curve. They opposed this idea on theoretical grounds, as they noted that if unemployment was to be permanently lower, some real variable in the economy, like the real wage, would have changed permanently. Why this should be the case because inflation was higher, appeared to rely on systematic irrationality in the labor market. As Friedman remarked, wage inflation would eventually catch up and leave the real wage, and unemployment, unchanged. Hence, lower unemployment could only be attained as long as wage inflation and inflation expectations lagged behind actual inflation. This was seen to be only a temporary outcome. Eventually, unemployment would return to the rate determined by real factors independent of the inflation rate. According to Friedman and Phelps, the Phillips curve was therefore vertical in the long run, and expansive demand policies would only be a cause of inflation, not a cause of permanently lower unemployment. The policy implication is that the natural rate of unemployment cannot permanently be reduced by demand management policies (including monetary policy), but that such policies can play a role in stabilizing variations in actual unemployment. So, we should find out what exactly impact the government policies have to the countrys economy. Firstly, we should consider monetary policy and whether it has affect to the natural level of output. Monetary policy is the process a government, central bank, or monetary authority of a country uses to control the supply of money, availability of money, and cost of money or rate of interest to attain a set of objectives oriented towards the growth and stability of the economy. Monetary policy is referred to as either being an expansionary policy, or a contractionary policy, where an expansionary policy increases the total supply of money in the economy, and a contractionary policy decreases the total money supply. Expansionary policy is traditionally used to combat unemployment in a recession by lowering interest rates, while contractionary policy involves raising interest rates to combat inflation. Lets look how the monetary policy is working and that is then happening to equilibrium output. Suppose that government is running the expansionary monetary policy and increase the level of nominal money from M to M. Assume that before the change in nominal money, output is at its natura l level. So now we will try to find out does the monetary policy affect the natural level of output. In the Figure 1 we see that aggregate demand and aggregate supply cross at point A, where the level of output is equals Yn, and the price level equals P. Figure 1. Suppose the nominal money level increase. Remember the equation Y=Y(M/P,G,T). For a given price level P, the increase in nominal money M leads to an increase in the real money stock M/P leading to an increase in output. Aggregate demand curve shifts from AD to AD. In the short run economys equilibrium goes from A to A, output increases from Yn to Y and prices increases from P to P. Over time, the equilibrium changes. As output is higher than the natural level of output, the price level is higher than was expected so the wage setters revise their expectations which cause AS curve to shift up. The economy moves up along the aggregate demand curve, AD. The adjustment process stops when output is returned to the natural level of output. In the medium run the aggregate supply curve is AS, the economy is at point A and the price level have rose and is equal to P. So the only effect achieved by monetary policy in medium run is price level rise. The proportional increase in the nominal money stock is equal to the proportional increase in prices. So we can see that expansionary monetary policy did not affect the natural level of output. We should consider why it did not succeed. As we know that stabilizing inflation will also stabilize output at its natural level, so it suggest assumption that monetary policy does not affect natural level of output, but only changes real level of output and returns it to the position of natural level of output. So, in the short run, monetary policy affects the level of real output as well as its composition: an increase in money leads to a decrease in interest rates and a depreciation of the currency. Both of these lead to an increase in the demand for goods and an increase in output. In the medium run and the long run, monetary policy is neutral: changes in either the level or the rate of growth of money have no effect on output or unemployment, so it cannot affect the natural level of unemployment and the natural level of output. Changes in the level of money lead to proportional increase in prices. Changes in the rate of nominal money growth lead to corresponding changes in the inflation rate. Secondly, we should consider the fiscal policy and whether it affects the natural level of output. Fiscal policy is the use of government expenditure and revenue collection to influence the economy. Fiscal policy can be contrasted with the other main type of economic policy, monetary policy, which attempts to stabilize the economy by controlling interest rates and the supply of money. The two main instruments of fiscal policy are government expenditure and taxation. Changes in the level and composition of taxation and government spending can impact on the following variables in the economy: aggregate demand and the level of economic activity; the pattern of resource allocation; the distribution of income. Lets consider the fiscal policy impact to countrys economy and natural level of output. Take an example the government is running a budget deficit and decides to reduce it by decreasing it spending from G to G and leave taxes T unchanged. Assume that output is initially at the natural level of output so that the economy is at point A in figure 2 and output equals Yn. Figure 2. The decrease in government spending from G to G shifts the aggregate demand curve from AD to AD: for a given price level, output is lower. In the short run, the equilibrium moves from A to A: output decreases from Yn to Y, and the price level decreases from P to P. As we can see the deficit reduction leads to lower output. In the medium run as long as output is below the natural level of output, the aggregate supply curve keeps shifting down. The economy moves down along the aggregate demand curve AD, until the aggregate supply curve is given by AS and the economy reaches point A. By then, the recession is over, and output is back at Yn. Like an increase in nominal money, a reduction in the budget deficit does not affect output forever. Eventually, output returns to its natural level. However there is an important difference between the effect of a change in money and the effect of a change in deficit. In this case output is back to the natural level of output, but the price level and the interest rate are lower than before the shift. So we can conclude that fiscal policy cannot affect the natural level of output it only affects the real level of output which in the medium and long run comes back to its natural level. Thirdly, we should consider whether government has any other policy that can affect the natural level of output. We have find out neither fiscal nor monetary policy cannot affect the natural level of output by itself. However, using both of these policies together in appropriate way can cause a desirable result and a change the natural level of output. Lets look in Figure 3, which shows the mix of monetary and fiscal policy. There are two ways to stabilize income at Y*, which is the natural level of output. First, there is expansionary or easy fiscal policy. This leads to a high IS schedule IS1. To keep income in check with such an expansionary fiscal policy, tight monetary policy is needed. Government choose a low money supply target, which is represented by LM1 schedule in the Figure 3. Equilibrium E1 is at output Y*, but has the high interest rate r1. With high government spending, private demand must be kept in check. The mix of easy fiscal policy and tight monetary policy implie s government spending G is a big part of national income Y* but private spending (C + I) is a small part. Alternatively, government interested in long-run growth may choose a tight fiscal policy and easy monetary policy. In this case target income Y* is attained with a lower interest rate r2 at the equilibrium E2. With easy monetary policy and tight fiscal policy, the share of private expenditure (C + I) is higher, and the share of government expenditure lower, than at E1. With lower interest rates, there is less crowding out of private expenditure. It rises the investment level and high investment increases the capital stock more quickly, giving workers more equipment with which to work and raising their productivity. In the long run it will cause the growth of the natural output level. Figure 3. Income Y* Interest rates r1 r2 E1 LM1 LM0 IS0 IS1 E4 E3 E2 So we can make a conclusion, that neither the fiscal nor the monetary policy can affect the natural level of output working separately. Though, if the government uses both policies, this mean use the mix of monetary and fiscal policies, for example for expanding the government spending on such things as basic research, public health, education, and infrastructure, this will cause the long-term growth of potential output. EGovernment: History, Causes and Trends EGovernment: History, Causes and Trends BENCHMARKING EGOVERNMENT SERVICES Abstract: Governments around the world have embraced the use of Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs). This represents a relatively new branch of study within the IT field. EGovernment Services are provided through many different means of access and to a variance of audiences, citizens, businesses or even other governmental entities. After clarifying the definitions and differences among similar terms (i.e. eGovernance and Digital Government, eDemocracy) this paper examines how eGovernment is measured by analyzing the dominating methodologies that are used. Furthermore, following specifically the eGovernment benchmarking methodology that is used by the European Commission, a greater focus in the evolution of eGovernment in Greece has been made. The finding through this assessment was far from satisfactory. Particularly, comparing the 20 Basic eGovernment Services offered in Greece, from 2007 to 2009, no development in terms of improvement, has taken place. Finally, the measures tha t governments need to undertake are discussed. Introduction In the past years, assisted by the invasion of Information Technology in everyday lives, governments all over the world have begun widely using information technologies for increasing the effectiveness and quality of the services they provide. These initiatives have become known as â€Å"electronic government† or eGovernment services. In most cases, when words gain that attractive â€Å"e-â€Å" in front of them, the popular belief is that they have become â€Å"electronic†, whatever that means, even though in some cases it does not make much sense. This confusion is much more obvious when the original word itself has conceptual and abstract meanings. Words like Government and Governance. Section I presents the most popular definitions, choosing the one that describe each term the best, and clarifies boundaries between the most common terms. Furthermore, the different ways that eGovernment can be classified, depending on the delivery model or the audience, is outlined. Although the definitions of eGovernment may vary widely, there an obvious shared theme emerges; eGovernment involves using information technology, and especially the Internet, to improve the delivery of government services to citizens, businesses, and other government agencies. It acts as enabler for citizens to interact and receive services from governments twenty four hours a day, seven days a week. Monitoring eGovernment development and evaluating its effectiveness is a complex and challenging task, as the phenomenon is new and dynamic. In Section II, the basics of Benchmarking are presented and its structural elements are analyzed. Focusing on specific examples of methodology used, a set of four dominant practices that represent the longest running efforts for measuring eGovernment is chosen to be explored further. Using the reports publish by each one of them, on a periodical basis, their inner workings are analyzed and the various developments, changes and evolutions in the methods employed by each one are mentioned. Section III focuses at benchmarking of eGovernment Services in Europe. In order to recognize how eGovernment has evolved and matured within the European Union, the relevant European directives, initiatives and frameworks for the development of eGovernment Services in the region since 1999 are examined. Following that, the methodology used for benchmarking eGovernment the European Union is examined in detail. All measuring elements, including some that were used for the first time in the most recently published report are evaluated. Having established what eGovernment is, what Benchmarking is and how its methodologies function, Section IV uses the data from the latest European eGovernment Benchmarking Report, which was published in November 2009, to assess how the Greek eGovernment landscape evolved since the previous report in 2007. The results are disappointing. When comparing the 20 Basic eGovernment Services offered in Greece, there was no improvement, what so ever, from 2007 to 2009. Following that, Greek performance in the two new indices introduced in the latest report (EProcurement and User Experience) is reported and compared to the respective EU27+ average. Finally, in Section V, a general overview is provided along with the conclusions about the (lack of) progress in eGovernment in Greece. Scope and aims The scope of this project is to analyze how the meaning of eGovernment has evolved in the past few years and then review the current trends in benchmarking the penetration sophistication of eGovernment services in Europe and the rest of the world. Furthermore, this project reports and analyses the level of eGovernment services offered in Greece. The basic aims of this project are: Define the eGovernment ecosystem, typology and taxonomy. Analyse the dominant methodologies of benchmarking eGovernment services Gather and process existing results about eGovernment in Greece, regarding service penetration and sophistication, along with other relevant metrics. Resources This project relies heavily on research. In particular, a lot of research on what the different and sometimes contradicting terms that define eGovernment as well as the rest of the relevant terms in academic papers throughout the previous decade was made. Following that, further research about the current and past trends in benchmarking in general and eGovernment benchmarking in particular are is conducted. From there on, having established what eGovernment is and what the provided services should be, along with how they are measured, more research was conducted in order to reveal what the actual current level of provided eGovernment services is. To accomplish this, reports from many different parties are used. These include reports published both by well knows analyst firms or government bodies in various levels as well as reports issued at a global level such as the United Nations to local reports issued by the authorities of each country such as the IT Observatory in Greece. Typology Convention Throughout the bibliography, or any other sort of resource for that matter, â€Å"electronic† terms do not have a consistent representation. So, just like electronic mail can be found abbreviated in quite a few forms, â€Å"electronic† Government is abbreviated to eGovernment, e-Government, E-Government etc. To avoid this inconsistency, through this project the term eGovernment will be used (changed to EGovernment only in the beginning of sentences). This convention will apply to â€Å"electronic† terms that will be used such as eGovernance. I. EGovernment, eGovernance and Digital Governance EGovernment is one more of the recent years â€Å"buzzwords†. It is usually either paired with the word â€Å"services† at the end or other words like eGovernance and Digital Government. Like every other (relatively) new and cool â€Å"buzzword† they are used widely by a broad spectrum of individuals who represent mostly two different backgrounds. Information technology and politics. The first because it is a technological issue, the later because they have come to realize, even though a little late, that they represent an excellent vehicle for them to provide a better experience to anyone who interacts with the Government. But, what do these terms mean? Do they collide or conflict each other? How about covering or including one another? A. EGovernment Definitions There is not one, unique and commonly accepted definition for eGovernment. It is quite difficult to decide over a specific one but after the research made, the following definition from the World Bank (ÃŽ  ÃŽâ€˜ÃŽ ¡ÃŽâ€˜ÃŽ  ÃŽÅ¸ÃŽÅ"ÃŽ  ÃŽâ€") describes it best: â€Å"Government refers to the use by government agencies of information technologies (such as Wide Area Networks, the Internet, and mobile computing) that have the ability to transform relations with citizens, businesses, and other arms of government. These technologies can serve a variety of different ends: better delivery of government services to citizens, improved interactions with business and industry, citizen empowerment through access to information, or more efficient government management. The resulting benefits can be less corruption, increased transparency, greater convenience, revenue growth, and/or cost reductions ((AOEMA), 2004). Although other definitions have been provided, this definition is preferred. The reason is that it is the most concise and the easiest to be understood since apart describing in simple words how eGovernment is utilized, it goes on to offer a very brief, yet to the point, reference to its main advantages. EGovernment definitions various other sources as follows:  · United Nations definition ((AOEMA), 2004): â€Å"E-government is defined as utilizing the Internet and the world-wide-web for delivering government information and services to citizens.† * Global Business Dialogue on Electronic Commerce GBDe definition ((AOEMA), 2004): â€Å"Electronic government (hereafter e-Government) refers to a situation in which administrative, legislative and judicial agencies (including both central and local governments) digitize their internal and external operations and utilize networked systems efficiently to realize better quality in the provision of public services.† * Gartner Groups definition: â€Å"the continuous optimization of service delivery, constituency participation, and governance by transforming internal and external relationships through technology, the Internet and new media.† * Definition of the Working Group on eGovernment in the Developing World: E-government is the use of information and communication technologies (ICTs) to promote more efficient and effective government, facilitate more accessible government services, allow greater public access to information, and make government more accountable to citizens. E-government might involve delivering services via the Internet, telephone, community centers (self-service or facilitated by others), wireless devices or other communications systems.† EGovernment is in the first stages of development. Most governments have already taken or are taking initiatives offering government services online. However, for the true potential of eGovernment to be realized, government needs to restructure and transform its long entrenched business processes. EGovernment is not simply the process of moving existing government functions to an electronic platform. Rather, it calls for rethinking the way government functions are carried out today to improve some processes, to introduce new ones and to replace those that require it. The range of services that may be provided by e-government spans from simple information sites to fully interactive experiences where users and government engage in a dialog mediated by information technology. Internal information systems of Government agencies, information kiosks, automated telephone information services, SMS services and other systems all comprise e-Government services. All these are applications of Information and Communications Technologies (ICT) to improve the services of the Government towards its primary clients: the citizens. In the last few years, there has been much talk of mobile government or m-government. MGovernment refers to the use of wireless technologies like cellular/mobile phones, laptops and PDAs (Personal Digital Assistants) for offering and delivering government services. MGovernment is not a substitute for e-government, rather it complements it. 1. Benefits of eGovernment E-Government initiatives contribute to citizen empowerment by making information about government processes and decisions easily available, and allowing information-sharing among people and organizations, and between citizens and the civil service (Accenture and the Markle Foundation, 2001). Well-informed citizens are better able to hold their governments accountable. Governments are then compelled to improve the quality of services, expand accessibility of these services, and increase responsiveness to their constituents. Many Government services rely on information passed among different offices within a department or across departments. The large amount of information and paperwork required results in an environment where for red tape rips, the workforce is inefficient and bureaucratic, and the delivery of services is ineffective. With the usage of ICT, the government bureaucracy and citizens are both winners in the battle against the paper trail. eGovernment allows government kno wledge and data exchange to be accessed more easily (whether public or secure) by the appropriate offices or individuals. By this, it reduces redundancies of information flows, and resulting in overall increased productivity. Another result of the integration of operations of government agencies is the improvement of transparency in government. EGovernment minimizes redundant information flows, helps to eliminate duplications of functions, and improves the adherence of public servants to proper government procedures, thereby reducing opportunities for corruption. This, provided it is accompanied by well-informed and active citizens, will assist in limiting the relationship between bureaucracy and corruption and will help lead to a higher sense of accountability among officials. B. EGovernment Taxonomy EGovernment can be classified according to different criteria. It can be classified according to its level, its audience and last but certainly not least, according to the delivery mechanism used. 1. Reach EGovernment can be categorized in the following five distinct levels depending on how broad it is. The levels are: * International * National * Regional * State/Provisional * Local These levels are illustrated below (see 1 adapted from Heeks, 2006) 2. Audience The question of where eGovernment originates is pretty much self-explanatory. Nevertheless, the same does not apply when wondering about who is in the receiving end. The answer that first comes to mind is, the citizens. But isnt so. Apart from citizens, there are other entities that are benefited by eGovernment services. According to Backus, â€Å"the three main target groups that can be distinguished in eGovernment concepts are government, citizens and businesses/interest groups. The external strategic objectives focus on citizens and businesses and interest groups, the internal objectives focus on government itself† (Backus, 2001). a) Government to Citizens (G2C) Government to Citizen activities are those in which the government provides, on-line, one-stop access to information and services to citizens. G2C applications allow citizens to ask questions of government agencies and receive answers, such us: * File income taxes * Pay taxes * Arrange driving tests or renew drivers licenses * Pay traffic tickets * Make appointments for vehicle emission inspections and * Change their address In addition, a government could: * Distribute information on the web * Provide downloadable forms online * Conduct training (e.g., in some US States, the classes for the drivers tests are offered online) * Assist citizens in finding employment * Provide touristic and recreational information * Provide health advice about safety issues (e.g. warnings for epidemics like the recent H1N1 virus) * Allow transfer of benefits like food coupons * File natural disaster relief compensation electronically through the use of smart cards; and the list goes on. b) Government to Business (G2B) Government to Business activities refers to those where the government deals with businesses such as suppliers using the Internet and other ICTs. It is a bidirectional interaction and transaction: Government to Business (G2B) and Business to Government (B2G). B2G is about businesses selling products and services to government. The most important G2B areas are eProcurement (which essentially is actually a reverse auction) and the auction of government surpluses. c) Government to Government (G2G) Lastly, Government to Government refers to those activities that take place between different government organizations/agencies/entities. Many of these activities aim to improve the effectiveness and efficiency of overall government operations. One such example is the Intelink, an intranet that carries classified information shared by different U.S. intelligence agencies. 3. Delivery Mechanism EGovernment services are provided not only via the Internet. Instead, many other means are often used. In fact, studies and reports indicate that these â€Å"other† means of eGovernment services provision show in some cases extremely high utilization. For example: * Telephony dominates channel usage in some situations: Accenture (2005) reports 63% of industrialized country respondents contacting government by telephone; compared to 31% using the Internet over a 12-month period. * In-person visits dominate in other situations: an Australian survey reports half of government contacts to be face-to-face compared to one-fifth undertaken via the Internet (AGIMO 2005). * Survey data also reflects an ongoing preference for telephone or in-person channels especially for transactional, problem-solving, urgent and complex interactions (AGIMO 2005, Horrigan 2005). a) Multichannel Examples Some Governments have embraced this reality and adopted a multichannel approach to the services they offer. In its Progress Reports, the European Comission includes some specific examples: * In Malta, citizens can access their personal social security records and payments via the internet, and may also opt to be notified about their social security payments via SMS rather than receiving printed payment advice by post. However, the most innovative initiative is the introduction of eGovernment Agents that act as intermediaries to those without access. (ePractice eGovernment Factsheets Malta, 2009) * In Austria, all websites that belong to the .gv.at domain are available free of charge or connection fees via wireless hotspots (WLAN), and via public kiosks, thanks to an excellent cooperation between the Austrian Government and two major telecommunication providers. Similar to Malta, Austria also has legislation in place allowing officials to act as intermediaries for citizens who do not have online access or a citizen (ePractice eGovernment Factsheets Austria, 2009) * In Spain, 060 is the magic code providing a single access point. Many services provided by different administrations can be accessed via the 060 network, whether they are office-, internet-, or phone-based. Citizens can access the networks 2800 points of presence in the street or their office on the web, by the phone (060) or SMS. The 060 phone number is intended to replace over 1000 phone numbers available for citizens to access information of the General Administration of the State. The network is available 24/7 and currently offers 1225 national, regional and local public services. It is worth noting that In August 2007, only 15 months after its creation, the citizen information phoneline 060 had already dealt with 700000 enquiries. (ePractice eGovernment Factsheets Spain, 2009) C. EGovernance Definitions Just like eGovernment, there is not a single common definition to describe eGovernance. However, the UNESCO defines it best: â€Å"E-governance is the public sectors use of information and communication technologies with the aim of improving information and service delivery, encouraging citizen participation in the decision-making process and making government more accountable, transparent and effective. E-governance involves new styles of leadership, new ways of debating and deciding policy and investment, new ways of accessing education, new ways of listening to citizens and new ways of organizing and delivering information and services. E-governance is generally considered as a wider concept than e-government, since it can bring about a change in the way citizens relate to governments and to each other. E-governance can bring forth new concepts of citizenship, both in terms of citizen needs and responsibilities. Its objective is to engage, enable and empower the citizen.† Other definitions include * â€Å"EGovernance, meaning ‘electronic governance is using information and communication technologies (ICTs) at various levels of the government and the public sector and beyond, for the purpose of enhancing governance.† (Bedi et all, 2001, Holmes , 2001 and Okot-Uma, 2000). * Whereas according to Backus (2001), eGovernance is defined as the, â€Å"application of electronic means in (1) the interaction between government and citizens and government and businesses, as well as (2) in internal government operations to simplify and improve democratic, government and business aspects of Governance.† D. Digital Government The term Digital Governance was introduced more than 7 years ago (McIver Elmargarmid, 2002). Notions such as eGovernment, eGovernance and any future technology of ICT (e.g. Web 2.0 applications), should fall under the Digital Governance umbrella (Schellong, 2009). This term has been preferred by other researchers as well, due to the excessive usage of adding letters like â€Å"e† (electronic), â€Å"m† (mobile), â€Å"u† (ubiquitous) or â€Å"2.0† to government-related terms. Schellong goes further to suggest a specific typology (2008) as illustrated below in 2: EGovernment contains the terms: * EAdministration Internal use of ICT * EServices. External use of ICT * EDemocracy. Use of ICT for direct public participation in government (decision making or voting) EGovernance is a completely different branch and deals with government, society and economy. E. Open Government In the last decade, there have been many efforts to promote eGovernment. A new initiative has emerged though, Open Government, or OpenGov as it is usually abbreviated. OpenGovernment efforts have begun not only in the US but also in other countries, like Greece. Although OpenGovernment and eGovernment have similar characteristics and share common goals, the greatest one being the promotion of transparency, they are not the same. Open Government can be argued to be an evolution of eGovernment (GUSTETIC, 2009), since the only reason that it exists as an initiative today is because of advances made by eGovernment along with various technological improvements and innovations. II. Benchmarking A. Definition Benchmarking is defined as the process of measuring the performance of an organization along with the practices it applies in key areas and subsequently comparing them to other organizations. It is widely accepted in the private sector and is being used as a practical tool in order to achieve positive results with unlimited potential. EGovernment benchmarking means undertaking a review of comparative performance of eGovernment between nations or agencies. These studies have two purposes: * Internal: Benefit the individual and/or organization undertaking the benchmarking study * External: Benefit achieved for users of the study. This project falls into the first category, as described in the Scope and Aims paragraph earlier in the document. B. Goals With new expectations about their performance, government entities are being encouraged to look at ways of implementing changes in their practices. Benchmarking provides them with one of their most useful options. In every industry, there are ways of doing things that are broadly recognized as standard practices for that industry. However, every industry has its leaders. These leaders are organizations that over perform when measured against those standards. They have achieved â€Å"best practices† as demonstrated by their results in quality, cost, customer satisfaction and responsiveness. Benchmarking aims to discover what the â€Å"best practices† are that lead to superior performance. In greater detail, the process of benchmarking e-Government : * Fosters accountability for eGovernment projects. * Helps meeting rising public expectations * Enables government officials to take more informed decisions and corrective actions * Validates the generated public value * Fosters projects interchange Moreover, benchmarking can be distinguished from other traditional forms of evaluation by its attempt to visualize â€Å"best practices† through normalizing comparison and by urging public entities to ask themselves what they can do to promote them. Benchmarking enables and motivates them to determine how well current practices compare to others practices, locate performance gaps, experience best practices in action, and prioritize areas for improvement or other opportunities. It is quite important to note that â€Å"Benchmarking is not the same as benchmarks. Benchmarks are performance measures and benchmarking is the action of conducting the evaluation.† (Yasin, 2002). C. Data Sources After establishing what benchmarking is, the most common data sources are evaluated.. 1. Calculated Indicators Quite a few benchmarking reports use composite indicators, for example, for the purposes of national rankings. Because it is not always clear how they are calculated or researched, composites have been criticized (UIS 2003) for their lack of transparency along for their subjectivity. Fortunately, a guide for good practice in use of composites has been developed (eGEP 2006a:45) and includes: * Developing a theoretical framework for the composite. * Identifying and developing relevant variables. * Standardizing variables to allow comparisons. * Weighting variables and groups of variables. * Conducting sensitivity tests on the robustness of aggregated variables. Other than the composite calculation of national rankings, there seems to be little use of calculated indicators in the benchmarking of e-government. The most commonly used indicators include: * Benefit/Cost Ratio. * Demand/Supply Match. * Comparative Service Development. * National Ranking Some examples along with the methods used for each indicator are illustrated in Table 1below (adapted from Heeks, 2006). Calculated Indicator Example Method Benefit/Cost Ratio Expected financial benefit (impact) / Financial cost (input) (NOIE 2003) Interview (internal self-assessment / internal administrative records) Demand/Supply Match Preference for online channel in particular services versus Online sophistication of that service (Graafland Essers Ettendgui 2003) Mass citizen survey Comparative Service Development Stage model level of citizen services versus business services (Capgemini 2005) Stage model level of different service cluster areas (Capgemini 2005) Third party Web assessment National Ranking Composite of features and stage model level for national websites (West 2005) Composite of ICT and human infrastructure with stage model level for national/other websites (UN 2005) Composite of stage model level, integration and personalization of national websites (Accenture 2005) Third party Web assessment Table 1 Calculated Indicators Used in eGovernment Benchmarking (Heeks, 2006). 2. Standard Public Sector Indicators Apart from calculated indicators, others (Flynn 2002) suggest using a standard indicator set for public sector performance. This set is displayed in Table 2 below (adapted from Flynn 2002). Indicator Explanation eGovernment Example Benchmark Economy The amount of inputs used Expenditure per capita on IT None Internal efficiency The ration of input intermediates Cost per website produced per year Minimization External efficiency The ratio of inputs: outputs (use) Cost per citizen user of government websites per year Minimization Internal effectiveness The fit between actual outputs (use) and organizational objectives or other set targets The extent to which underserved communities are users of e-government services Maximization External effectiveness The fit between actual impacts and organizational objectives or other set targets The extent to which citizens are gaining employment due to use of an eGovernment job search service Maximization Quality The quality of intermediates or, more typically outputs (use) The quality of eGovernent services as perceived by citizen users Maximization Equity The equitability of distribution of outputs and impacts The quality of time/money saved by eGovernment service use between rich and poor Maximization Table 2 Standard Indicators for eGovernment Performance (Flynn 2002) D. Methodologies Having described the methodologies used more commonly when benchmarking eGovernment services, the next step is to illustrate how the necessary data is gathered. There are a number of official methods (eGEP 2006b): * Focus groups * Internal administrative records * Internal self-assessment * Mass user surveys * Official statistics * Pop-up surveys * Third part web assessment * Web metrics and crawlers Each of these methods can be compared in four different and distinct factors (Heeks, 2006). Those are: * Cost: The time and financial cost of the method. * Value: The value of the method in producing data capable of assessing the downstream value of e-government. * Comparability: The ease with which data produced can be compared across nations or agencies. * Data Quality: The level of quality of the methods data. In particular, Heeks suggests using the CARTA (Complete, Accurate, Relevant, Timely, Appropriate) check list when assessing data quality (2006). There is also a set of methodologies that are not used as frequently as the ones mentioned earlier. These are: * Intermediary Surveys. * Intranet Assessment. * Public Domain Statistics. * Public Servant and Politician Surveys. 1. Automation With new eGovernment services being introduced by Governments every day, benchmarking is gradually becoming a more and more important mechanism for identifying best practices and keeping track of developments, but as the number of the offered services increase, data collection becomes more and more difficult. Apart from that, since eGovernment is being expanded to other eGovernment levels, as illustrated earlier in 1, it is only natural that the number of benchmarking studies is increasing fast. Thus, the traditional approach of fata collection has not only become a very challenging but also a very resource intensive task. In order to address this matter, there are projects (eGovMon) which attempt to automate the data collection (Research Council of Norway, 2009). In particular, the eGovMon project is co-funded by the Research Council of Norway and â€Å"is developing methodology and software for quality evaluation of web services, in particular eGovernment services, concerning four areas:†  · Accessibility  · Transparency  · Efficiency  · Impact Additionally eGovMon will provide a policy design tool